Venice (/ˈvɛnɪs/ VEH-niss; Italian: Venezia [veˈnɛttsja] (listen); Venetian: Venesia or Venexia[citation needed] [veˈnɛsja]) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands[3] that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 bridges.[3][4] The islands are in the shallow Venetian Lagoon, an enclosed bay lying between the mouths of the Po and the Piave rivers (more exactly between the Brenta and the Sile). In 2020, around 258,685 people resided in greater Venice or the Comune di Venezia, of whom around 55,000 live in the historical island city of Venice (centro storico) and the rest on the mainland (terraferma). Together with the cities of Padua and Treviso, Venice is included in the Padua-Treviso-Venice Metropolitan Area (PATREVE), which is considered a statistical metropolitan area, with a total population of 2.6 million.[5]

The name is derived from the ancient Veneti people who inhabited the region by the 10th century BC.[6][7] The city was historically the capital of the Republic of Venice for over a millennium, from 697 to 1797. It was a major financial and maritime power during the Middle Ages and Renaissance, and a staging area for the Crusades and the Battle of Lepanto, as well as an important centre of commerce—especially silk, grain, and spice, and of art from the 13th century to the end of the 17th. The city-state of Venice is considered to have been the first real international financial centre, emerging in the 9th century and reaching its greatest prominence in the 14th century.[8] This made Venice a wealthy city throughout most of its history.[9] For centuries Venice possessed numerous territories along the Adriatic Sea and within the Italian peninsula, leaving a significant impact on the architecture and culture that can still be seen today.[10][11] The sovereignty of Venice came to an end in 1797, at the hands of Napoleon. Subsequently, in 1866, the city became part of the Kingdom of Italy.[12]

Venice has been known as "La Dominante", "La Serenissima", "Queen of the Adriatic", "City of Water", "City of Masks", "City of Bridges", "The Floating City", and "City of Canals". The lagoon and the historic parts of the city within the lagoon were inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987, covering an area of 70,176.4 ha.[13] In view of the fact that Venice and its lagoon are under constant threat in terms of their ecology and the safeguarding of the cultural heritage, Venice's UNESCO listing has been under constant examination by UNESCO.[14] Parts of Venice are renowned for the beauty of their settings, their architecture, and artwork.[3] Venice is known for several important artistic movements—especially during the Renaissance period—and has played an important role in the history of instrumental and operatic music, and is the birthplace of Baroque composers Tomaso Albinoni and Antonio Vivaldi.[15]

Although the city is facing some challenges (including an excessive number of tourists and problems caused by pollution, tide peaks and cruise ships sailing too close to buildings),[16][17][18] Venice remains a very popular tourist destination, a major cultural centre, and has been ranked many times the most beautiful city in the world.[19][20] It has been described by The Times as one of Europe's most romantic cities[21] and by The New York Times as "undoubtedly the most beautiful city built by man".[22]

History

Main article: History of the Republic of Venice

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of Venice.

Origins

Timeline of Venice

Historical affiliations

 Western Roman Empire, 421–476

 Kingdom of Odoacer, 476–493

 Ostrogothic Kingdom, 493–553

 Eastern Roman Empire, 553–584

 Byzantine Empire (Exarchate of Ravenna), 584–697

 Republic of Venice, 697–1797

 Habsburg monarchy, 1797–1805

 Kingdom of Italy, 1805–1814

 Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, 1815–1848

 Republic of San Marco, 1848–1849

 Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, 1849–1866

 Kingdom of Italy, 1866–1943

 Italian Social Republic, 1943–1945

 Italy, 1946–present

Although no surviving historical records deal directly with the founding of Venice,[23] tradition and the available evidence have led several historians to agree that the original population of Venice consisted of refugees—from nearby Roman cities such as Padua, Aquileia, Treviso, Altino, and Concordia (modern Portogruaro), as well as from the undefended countryside—who were fleeing successive waves of Germanic and Hun invasions.[24] This is further supported by the documentation on the so-called "apostolic families", the twelve founding families of Venice who elected the first doge, who in most cases trace their lineage back to Roman families.[25][26] Some late Roman sources reveal the existence of fishermen, on the islands in the original marshy lagoons, who were referred to as incolae lacunae ("lagoon dwellers"). The traditional founding is identified with the dedication of the first church, that of San Giacomo on the islet of Rialto (Rivoalto, "High Shore")—said to have taken place at the stroke of noon on 25 March 421 (the Feast of the Annunciation).[27][28][29]

Beginning as early as AD 166–168, the Quadi and Marcomanni destroyed the main Roman town in the area, present-day Oderzo. This part of Roman Italy was again overrun in the early 5th century by the Visigoths and, some 50 years later, by the Huns led by Attila. The last and most enduring immigration into the north of the Italian peninsula, that of the Lombards in 568, left the Eastern Roman Empire only a small strip of coastline in the current Veneto, including Venice. The Roman/Byzantine territory was organized as the Exarchate of Ravenna, administered from that ancient port and overseen by a viceroy (the Exarch) appointed by the Emperor in Constantinople. Ravenna and Venice were connected only by sea routes, and with the Venetians' isolation came increasing autonomy. New ports were built, including those at Malamocco and Torcello in the Venetian lagoon. The tribuni maiores formed the earliest central standing governing committee of the islands in the lagoon, dating from c. 568.[30]

St Mark's Basilica houses the relics of St Mark the Evangelist

The Doge's Palace, the former residence of the Doge of Venice

The traditional first doge of Venice, Paolo Lucio Anafesto (Anafestus Paulicius), was elected in 697, as written in the oldest chronicle by John, deacon of Venice c. 1008. Some modern historians claim Paolo Lucio Anafesto was actually the Exarch Paul, and Paul's successor, Marcello Tegalliano, was Paul's magister militum (or "general"), literally "master of soldiers". In 726 the soldiers and citizens of the exarchate rose in a rebellion over the iconoclastic controversy, at the urging of Pope Gregory II. The exarch, held responsible for the acts of his master, Byzantine Emperor Leo III, was murdered, and many officials were put to flight in the chaos. At about this time, the people of the lagoon elected their own independent leader for the first time, although the relationship of this to the uprisings is not clear. Ursus was the first of 117 "doges" (doge is the Venetian dialectal equivalent of the Latin dux ("leader"); the corresponding word in English is duke, in standard Italian duca. (See also "duce".) Whatever his original views, Ursus supported Emperor Leo III's successful military expedition to recover Ravenna, sending both men and ships. In recognition of this, Venice was "granted numerous privileges and concessions" and Ursus, who had personally taken the field, was confirmed by Leo as dux.[31] and given the added title of hypatus (from the Greek for "consul").[32]

In 751, the Lombard King Aistulf conquered most of the Exarchate of Ravenna, leaving Venice a lonely and increasingly autonomous Byzantine outpost. During this period, the seat of the local Byzantine governor (the "duke/dux", later "doge"), was at Malamocco. Settlement on the islands in the lagoon probably increased with the Lombard conquest of other Byzantine territories, as refugees sought asylum in the area. In 775/6, the episcopal seat of Olivolo (San Pietro di Castello, namely Helipolis[citation needed]) was created. During the reign of duke Agnello Particiaco (811–827) the ducal seat moved from Malamocco to the more protected Rialto, within present-day Venice. The monastery of St. Zachary and the first ducal palace and basilica of St. Mark, as well as a walled defense (civitatis murus) between Olivolo and Rialto, were subsequently built here.

Charlemagne sought to subdue the city to his rule. He ordered the pope to expel the Venetians from the Pentapolis along the Adriatic coast;[33] Charlemagne's own son Pepin of Italy, king of the Lombards, under the authority of his father, embarked on a siege of Venice itself. This, however, proved a costly failure. The siege lasted six months, with Pepin's army ravaged by the diseases of the local swamps and eventually forced to withdraw in 810. A few months later, Pepin himself died, apparently as a result of a disease contracted there. In the aftermath, an agreement between Charlemagne and the Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus in 814 recognized Venice as Byzantine territory, and granted the city trading rights along the Adriatic coast.

In 828 the new city's prestige increased with the acquisition, from Alexandria, of relics claimed to be of St Mark the Evangelist; these were placed in the new basilica. Winged lions—visible throughout Venice—are the emblem of St Mark. The patriarchal seat was also moved to Rialto. As the community continued to develop, and as Byzantine power waned, its own autonomy grew, leading to eventual independence.[34]

Expansion

The Republic of Venice and its colonial empire Stato da Màr

From the 9th to the 12th centuries, Venice developed into a powerful maritime empire (an Italian thalassocracy known also as repubblica marinara). In addition to Venice there were seven others: the most important ones were Genoa, Pisa, and Amalfi; and the lesser known were Ragusa, Ancona, Gaeta and Noli. Its own strategic position at the head of the Adriatic made Venetian naval and commercial power almost invulnerable.[35] With the elimination of pirates along the Dalmatian coast, the city became a flourishing trade centre between Western Europe and the rest of the world, especially with the Byzantine Empire and Asia, where its navy protected sea routes against piracy.[36]

Piazza San Marco in Venice, with St. Mark's Campanile

The Republic of Venice seized a number of places on the eastern shores of the Adriatic before 1200, mostly for commercial reasons, because pirates based there were a menace to trade. The doge already possessed the titles of Duke of Dalmatia and Duke of Istria. Later mainland possessions, which extended across Lake Garda as far west as the Adda River, were known as the Terraferma; they were acquired partly as a buffer against belligerent neighbours, partly to guarantee Alpine trade routes, and partly to ensure the supply of mainland wheat (on which the city depended). In building its maritime commercial empire, Venice dominated the trade in salt,[37] acquired control of most of the islands in the Aegean, including Crete, and Cyprus in the Mediterranean, and became a major power-broker in the Near East. By the standards of the time, Venice's stewardship of its mainland territories was relatively enlightened and the citizens of such towns as Bergamo, Brescia, and Verona rallied to the defence of Venetian sovereignty when it was threatened by invaders.

Venice remained closely associated with Constantinople, being twice granted trading privileges in the Eastern Roman Empire, through the so-called golden bulls or "chrysobulls", in return for aiding the Eastern Empire to resist Norman and Turkish incursions. In the first chrysobull, Venice acknowledged its homage to the empire; but not in the second, reflecting the decline of Byzantium and the rise of Venice's power.[38]

Venice became an imperial power following the Fourth Crusade, which, having veered off course, culminated in 1204 by capturing and sacking Constantinople and establishing the Latin Empire. As a result of this conquest, considerable Byzantine plunder was brought back to Venice. This plunder included the gilt bronze horses from the Hippodrome of Constantinople, which were originally placed above the entrance to the cathedral of Venice, St Mark's Basilica (The originals have been replaced with replicas, and are now stored within the basilica.) After the fall of Constantinople, the former Eastern Roman Empire was partitioned among the Latin crusaders and the Venetians. Venice subsequently carved out a sphere of influence in the Mediterranean known as the Duchy of the Archipelago, and captured Crete.[39]

View of San Giorgio Maggiore Island from St. Mark's Campanile

The seizure of Constantinople proved as decisive a factor in ending the Byzantine Empire as the loss of the Anatolian themes, after Manzikert. Although the Byzantines recovered control of the ravaged city a half-century later, the Byzantine Empire was terminally weakened, and existed as a ghost of its old self, until Sultan Mehmet The Conqueror took the city in 1453.

Situated on the Adriatic Sea, Venice had always traded extensively with the Byzantine Empire and the Middle East. By the late 13th century, Venice was the most prosperous city in all of Europe. At the peak of its power and wealth, it had 36,000 sailors operating 3,300 ships, dominating Mediterranean commerce. Venice's leading families vied with each other to build the grandest palaces and to support the work of the greatest and most talented artists. The city was governed by the Great Council, which was made up of members of the noble families of Venice. The Great Council appointed all public officials, and elected a Senate of 200 to 300 individuals. Since this group was too large for efficient administration, a Council of Ten (also called the Ducal Council, or the Signoria), controlled much of the administration of the city. One member of the great council was elected "doge", or duke, to be the chief executive; he would usually hold the title until his death, although several Doges were forced, by pressure from their oligarchical peers, to resign and retire into monastic seclusion, when they were felt to have been discredited by political failure.

Monument to Bartolomeo Colleoni (1400-1475), captain-general of the Republic of Venice from 1455 to 1475

The Venetian governmental structure was similar in some ways to the republican system of ancient Rome, with an elected chief executive (the doge), a senator-like assembly of nobles, and the general citizenry with limited political power, who originally had the power to grant or withhold their approval of each newly elected doge. Church and various private property was tied to military service, although there was no knight tenure within the city itself. The Cavalieri di San Marco was the only order of chivalry ever instituted in Venice, and no citizen could accept or join a foreign order without the government's consent. Venice remained a republic throughout its independent period, and politics and the military were kept separate, except when on occasion the Doge personally headed the military. War was regarded as a continuation of commerce by other means. Therefore, the city's early employment of large numbers of mercenaries for service elsewhere, and later its reliance on foreign mercenaries when the ruling class was preoccupied with commerce.

The Fra Mauro Map of the world. The map was made around 1450 and depicts Asia, Africa and Europe.

View of San Marco basin in 1697

Although the people of Venice generally remained orthodox Roman Catholics, the state of Venice was notable for its freedom from religious fanaticism, and executed nobody for religious heresy during the Counter-Reformation. This apparent lack of zeal contributed to Venice's frequent conflicts with the papacy. In this context, the writings of the Anglican divine William Bedell are particularly illuminating. Venice was threatened with the interdict on a number of occasions and twice suffered its imposition. The second, most noted, occasion was in 1606, by order of Pope Paul V.[citation needed]

The newly invented German printing press spread rapidly throughout Europe in the 15th century, and Venice was quick to adopt it. By 1482, Venice was the printing capital of the world; the leading printer was Aldus Manutius, who invented paperback books that could be carried in a saddlebag.[40] His Aldine Editions included translations of nearly all the known Greek manuscripts of the era.[41]

Decline

Venice's long decline started in the 15th century. Venice confronted the Ottoman Empire in the Siege of Thessalonica (1422–1430) and sent ships to help defend Constantinople against the besieging Turks in 1453. After the Fall of Constantinople, Sultan Mehmed II declared the first of a series of Ottoman-Venetian wars that cost Venice much of its eastern Mediterranean possessions. Vasco da Gama's 1497–1499 voyage opened a sea route to India around the Cape of Good Hope and destroyed Venice's monopoly. Venice's oared vessels were at a disadvantage when it came to traversing oceans, therefore Venice was left behind in the race for colonies.[citation needed]

The Black Death devastated Venice in 1348 and struck again between 1575 and 1577.[42] In three years, the plague killed some 50,000 people.[43] In 1630, the Italian plague of 1629–31 killed a third of Venice's 150,000 citizens.[44]

Venice began to lose its position as a centre of international trade during the later part of the Renaissance as Portugal became Europe's principal intermediary in the trade with the East, striking at the very foundation of Venice's great wealth. France and Spain fought for hegemony over Italy in the Italian Wars, marginalising its political influence. However, Venice remained a major exporter of agricultural products and until the mid-18th century, a significant manufacturing centre.[citation needed]

Modern age

1870s panoramic view of Venice

The Republic of Venice lost its independence when Napoleon Bonaparte conquered Venice on 12 May 1797 during the War of the First Coalition. Napoleon was seen as something of a liberator by the city's Jewish population. He removed the gates of the Ghetto and ended the restrictions on when and where Jews could live and travel in the city.

Venice became Austrian territory when Napoleon signed the Treaty of Campo Formio on 12 October 1797. The Austrians took control of the city on 18 January 1798. Venice was taken from Austria by the Treaty of Pressburg in 1805 and became part of Napoleon's Kingdom of Italy. It was returned to Austria following Napoleon's defeat in 1814, when it became part of the Austrian-held Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia. In 1848 a revolt briefly re-established the Venetian republic under Daniele Manin, but this was crushed in 1849. In 1866, after the Third Italian War of Independence, Venice, along with the rest of the Veneto, became part of the newly created Kingdom of Italy.

From the middle of the 18th century, Trieste and papal Ancona, both of which became free ports, competed with Venice more and more economically. Habsburg Trieste in particular boomed and increasingly served trade via the Suez Canal, which opened in 1869, between Asia and Central Europe, while Venice very quickly lost its competitive edge and commercial strength.[45]

During the Second World War, the historic city was largely free from attack, the only aggressive effort of note being Operation Bowler, a successful Royal Air Force precision strike on the German naval operations in the city in March 1945. The targets were destroyed with virtually no architectural damage inflicted on the city itself.[46] However, the industrial areas in Mestre and Marghera and the railway lines to Padua, Trieste, and Trento were repeatedly bombed.[47] On 29 April 1945, a force of British and New Zealand troops of the British Eighth Army, under Lieutenant General Freyberg, liberated Venice, which had been a hotbed of anti-Mussolini Italian partisan activity.[48][49]

The Grand Canal in Venice from Palazzo Flangini to Campo San Marcuola, Canaletto (circa 1738, J. Paul Getty Museum)

The Grand Canal in Venice from Palazzo Flangini to Campo San Marcuola, Canaletto (circa 1738, J. Paul Getty Museum)

Francesco Guardi, The Grand Canal (circa 1760, Art Institute of Chicago)

Francesco Guardi, The Grand Canal (circa 1760, Art Institute of Chicago)

Morning Impression along a Canal in Venice, Veneto, Italy, by Rafail Levitsky (1896)

Morning Impression along a Canal in Venice, Veneto, Italy, by Rafail Levitsky (1896)

Gondola Punta and Basilica Salute (2015)

Gondola Punta and Basilica Salute (2015)

Venice view from the Bridge Priuli a Santa Sofia, to the Bridge de le Vele (2015)

Venice view from the Bridge Priuli a Santa Sofia, to the Bridge de le Vele (2015)

Grand Canal from Rialto to Ca'Foscari (2016)

Grand Canal from Rialto to Ca'Foscari (2016)

View from the Bridge of Sighs (2017)

View from the Bridge of Sighs (2017)

Geography

Venice viewed from the International Space Station

Venice and surroundings in false colour, from Terra. The picture is oriented with North at the top.

Venice sits atop alluvial silt washed into the sea by the rivers flowing eastward from the alps across the Veneto plain, with the silt being stretched into long banks, or lidi, by the action of the current flowing around the head of the Adriatic Sea from east to west.[50]

Subsidence

Piazza San Marco under water in 2007

Acqua alta ("high water") in Venice, 2008

Subsidence, the gradual lowering of the surface of Venice, has contributed—along with other factors—to the seasonal Acqua alta ("high water") when much of the city's surface is occasionally covered at high tide.

Building foundations

Those fleeing barbarian invasions who found refuge on the sandy islands of Torcello, Iesolo, and Malamocco, in this coastal lagoon, learned to build by driving closely spaced piles consisting of the trunks of alder trees, a wood noted for its water resistance, into the mud and sand,[51][52] until they reached a much harder layer of compressed clay. Building foundations rested on plates of Istrian limestone placed on top of the piles.[53]

Flooding

Between autumn and early spring, the city is often threatened by flood tides pushing in from the Adriatic. Six hundred years ago, Venetians protected themselves from land-based attacks by diverting all the major rivers flowing into the lagoon and thus preventing sediment from filling the area around the city.[54] This created an ever-deeper lagoon environment. Additionally, the lowest part of Venice, St. Mark's Basilica, is only 64 centimetres (25 in) above sea level, and one of the most flood-prone parts of the city.[55]

In 1604, to defray the cost of flood relief, Venice introduced what could be considered the first example of a "stamp tax".[56] When the revenue fell short of expectations in 1608, Venice introduced paper, with the superscription "AQ" and imprinted instructions, which was to be used for "letters to officials". At first, this was to be a temporary tax, but it remained in effect until the fall of the Republic in 1797. Shortly after the introduction of the tax, Spain produced similar paper for general taxation purposes, and the practice spread to other countries.

During the 20th century, when many artesian wells were sunk into the periphery of the lagoon to draw water for local industry, Venice began to subside. It was realized that extraction of water from the aquifer was the cause. The sinking has slowed markedly since artesian wells were banned in the 1960s. However, the city is still threatened by more frequent low-level floods—the Acqua alta, that rise to a height of several centimetres over its quays—regularly following certain tides. In many old houses, staircases once used to unload goods are now flooded, rendering the former ground floor uninhabitable.[citation needed]

Studies indicate that the city continues sinking at a relatively slow rate of 1–2 mm per annum;[57][58] therefore, the state of alert has not been revoked.

In May 2003, Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi inaugurated the MOSE Project (Modulo Sperimentale Elettromeccanico), an experimental model for evaluating the performance of hollow floatable gates, expected to be completed in late 2023;[59] the idea is to fix a series of 78 hollow pontoons to the sea bed across the three entrances to the lagoon. When tides are predicted to rise above 110 cm, the pontoons will be filled with air, causing them to float on lagoon side while hinged at sea floor on seaside, thus blocking the incoming water from the Adriatic Sea.[60] This engineering work was due to be completed by 2018.[61] A Reuters report stated that the MOSE Project attributed the delay to "corruption scandals".[62] The project is not guaranteed to be successful and the cost has been very high, with as much as approximately €2 billion of the cost lost to corruption.[16]

According to a spokesman for the FAI:

Mose is a pharaonic project that should have cost €800m [£675m] but will cost at least €7bn [£6bn]. If the barriers are closed at only 90 cm of high water, most of St Mark's will be flooded anyway; but if closed at very high levels only, then people will wonder at the logic of spending such sums on something that didn't solve the problem. And pressure will come from the cruise ships to keep the gates open.[63]

On 13 November 2019, Venice was flooded when waters peaked at 1.87 m (6 ft), the highest tide since 1966 (1.94 m).[64] More than 80% of the city was covered by water, which damaged cultural heritage sites, including more than 50 churches, leading to tourists cancelling their visits.[65][66] The planned flood barrier would have prevented this incident according to various sources, including Marco Piana, the head of conservation at St Mark's Basilica.[67] The mayor promised that work on the flood barrier would continue,[68][67] and the Prime Minister announced that the government would be accelerating the project.[65]

The city's mayor, Luigi Brugnaro, blamed the floods on climate change. The chambers of the Regional Council of Veneto began to be flooded around 10 pm, two minutes after the council rejected a plan to combat global warming.[69] One of the effects of climate change is sea level rise which causes an increase in frequency and magnitude of floodings in the city.[70][71] A Washington Post report provided a more thorough analysis:[72]

"The sea level has been rising even more rapidly in Venice than in other parts of the world. At the same time, the city is sinking, the result of tectonic plates shifting below the Italian coast. Those factors together, along with the more frequent extreme weather events associated with climate change, contribute to floods."

Henk Ovink, an expert on flooding, told CNN that, while environmental factors are part of the problem, "historic floods in Venice are not only a result of the climate crisis but poor infrastructure and mismanagement".[73]

The government of Italy committed to providing 20 million euros in funding to help the city repair the most urgent aspects although Brugnaro's estimate of the total damage was "hundreds of millions"[74] to at least 1 billion euros.[75]

On 3 October 2020, the MOSE was activated for the first time in response to a predicted high tide event, preventing some of the low-lying parts of the city (in particular the Piazza San Marco) from being flooded.[76]

Climate

According to the Köppen climate classification, Venice has a mid-latitude, four season humid subtropical climate (Cfa), with cool, damp winters and warm, humid summers. The 24-hour average temperature in January is 3.3 °C (37.9 °F), and for July this figure is 23.0 °C (73.4 °F). Precipitation is spread relatively evenly throughout the year, and averages 748 millimetres (29.4 in); snow isn't a rarity between late November and early March. During the most severe winters, the canals and parts of the lagoon can freeze, but with the warming trend of the past 30–40 years, the occurrence has become rarer.[77]

Climate data for Venice (1971–2000)

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Average high °C (°F) 6.6

(43.9) 8.6

(47.5) 12.5

(54.5) 16.1

(61.0) 21.5

(70.7) 24.9

(76.8) 27.7

(81.9) 27.5

(81.5) 23.5

(74.3) 18.0

(64.4) 11.6

(52.9) 7.4

(45.3) 17.2

(63.0)

Daily mean °C (°F) 3.3

(37.9) 4.7

(40.5) 8.3

(46.9) 12.0

(53.6) 17.1

(62.8) 20.5

(68.9) 23.0

(73.4) 22.6

(72.7) 18.9

(66.0) 13.8

(56.8) 7.8

(46.0) 4.0

(39.2) 13.0

(55.4)

Average low °C (°F) −0.1

(31.8) 0.8

(33.4) 4.1

(39.4) 7.8

(46.0) 12.7

(54.9) 16.1

(61.0) 18.3

(64.9) 17.7

(63.9) 14.3

(57.7) 9.6

(49.3) 4.0

(39.2) 0.6

(33.1) 8.8

(47.8)

Average precipitation mm (inches) 47.0

(1.85) 48.3

(1.90) 48.8

(1.92) 70.0

(2.76) 66.0

(2.60) 78.0

(3.07) 63.9

(2.52) 64.8

(2.55) 72.0

(2.83) 73.5

(2.89) 65.5

(2.58) 50.6

(1.99) 748.4

(29.46)

Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm) 6.0 5.2 5.7 8.3 8.2 8.6 5.9 6.1 5.9 6.7 5.8 5.9 78.3

Average relative humidity (%) 81 77 75 75 73 74 71 72 75 77 79 81 75.8

Mean monthly sunshine hours 80.6 107.4 142.6 174.0 229.4 243.0 288.3 257.3 198.0 151.9 87.0 77.5 2,037

Percent possible sunshine 29 38 38 41 49 51 62 59 51 45 29 28 43

Source 1: MeteoAM (sun and humidity 1961–1990)[78][79]

Source 2: Weather Atlas[80]

Climate data for Venice

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year

Average sea temperature °C (°F) 9.9

(49.8) 8.7

(47.7) 9.9

(49.8) 13.4

(56.1) 18.6

(65.5) 23.4

(74.1) 25.4

(77.7) 25.4

(77.7) 23.6

(74.5) 19.3

(66.7) 16.0

(60.8) 13.2

(55.8) 17.2

(63.0)

Mean daily daylight hours 9.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 15.0 16.0 15.0 14.0 13.0 11.0 10.0 9.0 12.3

Average Ultraviolet index 1 2 3 5 7 8 8 7 5 3 2 1 4.3

Source #1: seatemperature.org (avg. sea temperature)[81]

Source #2: Weather Atlas[80]

Demographics

Historical population

Year Pop. ±%

1000 60,000 —    

1200 80,000 +33.3%

1300 180,000 +125.0%

1400 110,000 −38.9%

1423 150,000 +36.4%

1500 100,000 −33.3%

1560 170,000 +70.0%

1600 200,000 +17.6%

1700 140,000 −30.0%

1800 140,000 +0.0%

The city was one of the largest in Europe in the High Middle Ages, with a population of 60,000 in AD 1000; 80,000 in 1200; and rising up to 110,000–180,000 in 1300. In the mid-1500s the city's population was 170,000, and by 1600 it approached 200,000.[82][83][84][85][86]

In 2021, there were 254,850 people residing in the Comune of Venice (the population figure includes 50,434 in the historic city of Venice (Centro storico), 177,621 in Terraferma (the mainland); and 26,795 on other islands in the lagoon).[87] 47.8% of the population in 2021 were male and 52.2% were female; minors (ages 18 and younger) were 14.7% of the population compared to elderly people (ages 65 and older) who numbered 27.9%. This compared with the Italian average of 16.7% and 23.5%, respectively. The average age of Venice residents was 48.6 compared to the Italian average of 45.9. In the five years between 2016 and 2021, the population of Venice declined by 2.7%, while Italy as a whole declined by 2.2%.[88] The population in the historic old city declined much faster: from about 120,000 in 1980 to about 60,000 in 2009,[89] and to 50,000 in 2021.[87] As of 2021, 84.2% of the population was Italian. The largest immigrant groups include: 7,814 (3.1%) Bangladeshis, 6,258 (2.5%) Romanians, 4,054 (1.6%) Moldovans, 4,014 (1.6%) Chinese, and 2,514 (1%) Ukrainians.[90]

Venice is predominantly Roman Catholic (85.0% of the resident population in the area of the Patriarchate of Venice in 2018[91]), but because of the long-standing relationship with Constantinople, there is also a noticeable Orthodox presence; and as a result of immigration, there is now a large Muslim community (about 25,000 or 9.5% of city population in 2018[92]) and some Hindu, and Buddhist inhabitants.

Since 1991, the Church of San Giorgio dei Greci in Venice has become the see of the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Italy and Malta and Exarchate of Southern Europe, a Byzantine-rite diocese under the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.[93]

There is also a historic Jewish community in Venice. The Venetian Ghetto was the area in which Jews were compelled to live under the Venetian Republic. The word ghetto (ghèto), originally Venetian, is now found in many languages. Shakespeare's play The Merchant of Venice, written in the late 16th century, features Shylock, a Venetian Jew. The first complete and uncensored printed edition of the Talmud was printed in Venice by Daniel Bomberg in 1523. During World War II, Jews were rounded up in Venice and deported to extermination camps. Since the end of the war, the Jewish population of Venice has declined from 1500 to about 500.[94] Only around 30 Jews live in the former ghetto, which houses the city's major Jewish institutions.[95] In modern times, Venice has an eruv,[96] used by the Jewish community.

Government

Local and regional government

See also: Mayor of Venice

The whole comune (red) in the Metropolitan City of Venice

The whole comune (red) in the Metropolitan City of Venice

Ca' Loredan is Venice's City Hall.

Ca' Loredan is Venice's City Hall.

Palazzo Corner is the seat of the Metropolitan City of Venice.

Palazzo Corner is the seat of the Metropolitan City of Venice.

Palazzo Ferro Fini is the seat of the Regional Council of Veneto.

Palazzo Ferro Fini is the seat of the Regional Council of Veneto.

The legislative body of the Comune is the City Council (Consiglio Comunale), which is composed of 36 councillors elected every five years with a proportional system, contextually to the mayoral elections. The executive body is the City Administration (Giunta Comunale), composed of 12 assessors nominated and presided over by a directly elected Mayor.

Venice was governed by centre-left parties from the early 1990s until the 2010s, when the Mayor started to be elected directly. Its region, Veneto, has long been a conservative stronghold, with the coalition between the regionalist Lega Nord and the centre-right Forza Italia winning absolute majorities of the electorate in many elections at local, national, and regional levels.

The current Mayor of Venice is Luigi Brugnaro, a centre-right independent businessman who is currently serving his second term in office.

The municipality of Venice is also subdivided into six administrative boroughs (municipalità). Each borough is governed by a council (Consiglio) and a president, elected every five years. The urban organization is dictated by Article 114 of the Italian Constitution. The boroughs have the power to advise the Mayor with nonbinding opinions on a large spectrum of topics (environment, construction, public health, local markets) and exercise the functions delegated to them by the City Council; in addition, they are supplied with autonomous funding to finance local activities.

The boroughs are:

Borough Population President Party Term MunicipalitaVCE.png

Lagoon area

1 Venezia (Historic city)–Murano–Burano 69,136 Marco Borghi PD 2020–2025

2 Lido–Pellestrina 21,664 Emilio Guberti Ind 2020–2025

Mainland (terraferma)[a]

3 Favaro Veneto 23,615 Marco Bellato Ind 2020–2025

4 Mestre–Carpenedo 88,592 Raffaele Pasqualetto LN 2020–2025

5 Chirignago–Zelarino 38,179 Francesco Tagliapietra Ind 2020–2025

6 Marghera 28,466 Teodoro Marolo Ind 2020–2025

Notes

 Annexed with a Royal Decree to the municipality of Venice in 1926.

Sestieri

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.

Find sources: "Venice" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

The historic city of Venice is divided into six areas called sestieri:

Sestiere Abbrev. Area

(ha) Population

2011-10-09 Density Number

of

islands Color

Cannaregio CN 121.36 16.950 13.967 33  

Castello CS 173.97 14.813 8.514 26  

San Marco SM 54.48 4.145 7.552 16  

Dorsoduro DD 161.32 13.398 8.305 30  

San Polo SP 46,70 9.183 19.665 7  

Santa Croce SC 88.57 2.257 2.548 14  

Historic centre 646.80[citation needed] 60.746 9.392 126  

Sestieri

Each sestiere is now a statistical and historical area without any degree of autonomy.[citation needed]

The six fingers or phalanges of the ferro on the bow of a gondola represent the six sestieri.[citation needed]

The sestieri are divided into parishes – initially 70 in 1033, but reduced under Napoleon, and now numbering just 38. These parishes predate the sestieri, which were created in about 1170. Each parish exhibited unique characteristics but also belonged to an integrated network. Each community chose its own patron saint, staged its own festivals, congregated around its own market centre, constructed its own bell towers, and developed its own customs.[97]

Other islands of the Venetian Lagoon do not form part of any of the sestieri, having historically enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy.[citation needed]

Each sestiere has its own house numbering system. Each house has a unique number in the district, from one to several thousand, generally numbered from one corner of the area to another, but not usually in a readily understandable manner.[citation needed]

Economy

Venice's economy has changed throughout history. Although there is little specific information about the earliest years, it is likely that an important source of the city's prosperity was the trade in slaves, captured in central Europe and sold to North Africa and the Levant. Venice's location at the head of the Adriatic, and directly south of the terminus of the Brenner Pass over the Alps, would have given it a distinct advantage as a middleman in this important trade. In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, Venice was a major centre for commerce and trade, as it controlled a vast sea-empire, and became an extremely wealthy European city and a leader in political and economic affairs.[98] From the 11th century until the 15th century, pilgrimages to the Holy Land were offered in Venice. Other ports such as Genoa, Pisa, Marseille, Ancona, and Dubrovnik were hardly able to compete with the well organized transportation of pilgrims from Venice.[99][100]

Like Murano, Burano is also a tourist destination, usually reached via vaporetto.

The beach of Lido di Venezia

Bridge of Sighs, one of the most visited sites in the city

The Venetian Arsenal houses the Naval Historical Museum.

Armenian merchants from Julfa were the leading traders in Venice, especially the Sceriman family in the 17th century. They were specialized in the gems and diamonds business.[101] The trade volume reached millions of tons, which was exceptional for 17th century.[102] This all changed by the 17th century, when Venice's trade empire was taken over by countries such as Portugal, and its importance as a naval power was reduced. In the 18th century, it became a major agricultural and industrial exporter. The 18th century's biggest industrial complex was the Venice Arsenal, and the Italian Army still uses it today (even though some space has been used for major theatrical and cultural productions, and as spaces for art).[103] Since World War II, many Venetians have moved to the neighboring cities of Mestre and Porto Marghera, seeking employment as well as affordable housing.[104]

Today, Venice's economy is mainly based on tourism, shipbuilding (mainly in Mestre and Porto Marghera), services, trade, and industrial exports.[98] Murano glass production in Murano and lace production in Burano are also highly important to the economy.[98]

The city is facing financial challenges. In late 2016, it had a major deficit in