SCALE
AIRCRAFT MODELER OCT 72_F2A_Fw190G_Bf109E_U-2_B-26_A-26K_VEGA SIRIUS_CATAPULT
US NAVY WW2 FLOATPLANE CATAPULT
PLANS
WW2 BREWSTER F2A BUFFALO FIGHTER
PLANE USN VF USMC VMF RAF RANGOON BURMA
DOUGLAS A-26 INVADER MEDIUM
BOMBER ATTACK PLANE WW2 KOREA VIETNAM CUBA / ON MARK A-26K COIN
LOCKHEED U-2 DRAGON LADY CIA
USAF SRW HIGH ALTITUDE STRATEGIC RECONNAISSANCE PLANE
WW2 GERMAN LUFTWAFFE FOCKE WULF
Fw190G-3 ATTACK PLANE SG
VEGA SIRIUS
MESSERSCHMITT Bf109E EMIL JAGDGESCHWADER
JG SUPER DETAILING
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Additional Information from
Internet Encyclopedia
The Lockheed U-2, nicknamed
"Dragon Lady", is an American single-jet engine, ultra-high altitude
reconnaissance aircraft operated by the United States Air Force (USAF) and
previously flown by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). It provides day and
night, high-altitude (70,000 feet; 21,000 m), all-weather intelligence
gathering.
Lockheed Corporation originally
proposed it in 1953, approval followed 1954, and the first test flight occurred
in 1955. It was flown during the Cold War over the Soviet Union, China,
Vietnam, and Cuba. In 1960, Gary Powers was shot down in a CIA U-2A over the
Soviet Union by a surface-to-air missile (SAM). Major Rudolf Anderson, Jr. was
shot down in another U-2 during the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.
U-2s have also taken part in
post�Cold War conflicts in Afghanistan and Iraq, and supported several
multinational NATO operations. The U-2 has also been used for electronic sensor
research, satellite calibration, scientific research, and communications
purposes. The U-2 is one of a handful of aircraft types to have served the USAF
for over 50 years, like the Boeing B-52. The newest models (TR-1, U-2R, U-2S)
entered service in the 1980s with the latest model, the U-2S, receiving its
technical upgrade in 2012.
It was thought that an aircraft
that could fly at 70,000 feet (21,300 m) would be beyond the reach of Soviet
fighters, missiles, and radar.4 Another USAF officer, John Seaberg, wrote a
request for proposal in 1953 for an aircraft that could reach 70,000 feet
(21,300 m) over a target with 1,500 nmi (1,700 mi; 2,800 km) of operational
radius. The USAF decided to solicit designs only from smaller aircraft
companies that could give the project more attention.5 Under the code name
"Bald Eagle", it gave contracts6 to Bell Aircraft, Martin Aircraft,
and Fairchild Engine and Airplane to develop proposals for the new
reconnaissance aircraft. Officials at Lockheed Aircraft Corporation heard about
the project and decided to submit an unsolicited proposal. To save weight and
increase altitude, Lockheed executive John Carter suggested that the design
eliminate landing gear and avoid attempting to meet combat load factors for the
airframe. The company asked Clarence "Kelly" Johnson to come up with
such a design. Johnson was Lockheed's best aeronautical engineer,7 responsible
for the P-38 and the P-80. He was also known for completing projects ahead of
schedule, working in a separate division of the company, informally called the
Skunk Works.
Johnson's design, named CL-282,
was based on the Lockheed XF-104 with long, slender wings and a shortened
fuselage. The design was powered by the General Electric J73 engine and took
off from a special cart and landed on its belly. It could reach an altitude of
73,000 feet (22,300 m) and had a 1,600 mi (1,400 nmi; 2,600 km) radius.9 The
reconnaissance aircraft was essentially a jet-powered glider. In June 1954, the
USAF rejected the design in favor of the Bell X-16 and the modified B-57.
Reasons included the lack of landing gear, use of the J73 engine instead of the
more proven Pratt & Whitney J57 (like the competing designs), and not using
multiple engines, which, the USAF believed, was more reliable. General Curtis
LeMay of Strategic Air Command (SAC) walked out during a CL-282 presentation,
saying that he was not interested in an airplane without wheels or guns.
Procurement of the aircraft's
components occurred secretly. When Johnson ordered altimeters calibrated to
80,000 feet (24,400 m) from a company whose instruments only went to 45,000
feet (13,700 m), the CIA set up a cover story involving experimental rocket
aircraft. Shell Oil developed a new low-volatility, low vapor pressure jet fuel
that would not evaporate at high altitudes; the fuel became known as JP-7, and
manufacturing several hundred thousand gallons for the aircraft in 1955 caused
a nationwide shortage of Esso's FLIT insect repellent. The aircraft was renamed
the U-2 in July 1955, the same month the first aircraft, Article 341, was
delivered to Groom Lake. The "U" referred to the deliberately vague
designation "utility" instead of "R" for "reconnaissance",
and the U-1 and U-3 aircraft already existed.15 The CIA assigned the cryptonym
AQUATONE to the project, with the USAF using the name OILSTONE for their
support to the CIA.
James Baker developed the optics
for a large-format camera to be used in the U-2 while working for Perkin-Elmer.
The new camera had a resolution of 2.5 feet (76 cm) from an altitude of 60,000
feet (18,000 m).17 The aircraft was so crowded that when Baker asked Johnson
for six more inches of space for a lens of 240 in (610 cm) focal length,
Johnson replied "I'd sell my grandmother for six more inches!"; Baker
instead used a 180 in (460 cm) f/13.85 lens in a 13�13 in (33�33 cm) format for
his final design.18
When the first overflights of
the Soviet Union were tracked by radar, the CIA initiated Project Rainbow to
reduce the U-2's radar cross-section. This effort ultimately proved
unsuccessful, and work began on a follow-on aircraft, which resulted in the
Lockheed A-12 Oxcart.
The design that gives the U-2
its remarkable performance also makes it a difficult aircraft to fly. Martin
Knutson said that it "was the highest workload air plane I believe ever
designed and built ... you're wrestling with the air plane and operating the
camera systems at all times", leaving no time to "worry about whether
you're over Russia or you're flying over southern California".28 The U-2
was designed and manufactured for minimum airframe weight, which results in an
aircraft with little margin for error.17 Most aircraft were single-seat
versions, with only five two-seat trainer versions known to exist.29 Early U-2
variants were powered by Pratt & Whitney J57 turbojet engines.30 The U-2C
and TR-1A variants used the more powerful Pratt & Whitney J75 turbojet. The
U-2S and TU-2S variants incorporated the more powerful General Electric F118
turbofan engine.31
High aspect ratio wings give the
U-2 some glider-like characteristics, with an engine out glide ratio of about
23:1,32 comparable to gliders of the time. To maintain their operational
ceiling of 70,000 feet (21,000 m), the early U-2A and U-2C models had to fly
very near their never-exceed speed (VNE). The margin between that maximum speed
and the stall speed at that altitude was only 10 knots (12 mph; 19 km/h). This
narrow window is called the "coffin corner",3334 because breaching
either limit would likely cause airflow separation at the wings or tail.35 For
most of the time on a typical mission the U-2 was flying less than five knots
above stall speed. A stall would cause a loss of altitude, possibly leading to
detection and overstress of the airframe.17
The U-2's flight controls are
designed for high-altitude flight; the controls require light control inputs at
operational altitude. However, at lower altitudes, the higher air density and
lack of a power assisted control system makes the aircraft very difficult to
fly. Control inputs must be extreme to achieve the desired response, and a
great deal of physical strength is needed to operate the controls in this
manner. The U-2 is very sensitive to crosswinds, which, together with its
tendency to float over the runway, makes the aircraft notoriously difficult to
land. As it approaches the runway, the cushion of air provided by the high-lift
wings in ground effect is so pronounced that the U-2 will not land unless the
wing is fully stalled. A landing U-2 is accompanied on the ground by a chase
car and an assisting U-2 pilot calling off the angles and decreasing aircraft
height as the aircraft descends.3637 In practice, once the aircraft has
descended to an altitude of 2 feet (61 cm) above the tarmac the pilot initiates
a stall and the aircraft falls from this height. Chase cars and live calling of
aircraft altitude are necessary because the landing gear is not designed to
absorb the weight of the aircraft when falling from altitudes much above 2
feet.
Most pilots chose to not take
with them the suicide pill offered before missions. If put in the mouth and
bitten, the "L-pill"�containing liquid potassium cyanide�would cause
death in 10�15 seconds. After a pilot almost accidentally ingested an L-pill
instead of candy during a December 1956 flight, the suicide pills were put into
boxes to avoid confusion. When in 1960 the CIA realized that a pill breaking
inside the cockpit would kill the pilot, it destroyed the L-pills, and as a
replacement its Technical Services Division developed a needle poisoned with a
powerful shellfish toxin and hidden in a silver dollar. Only one was made
because, as the agency decided, if any pilot needed to use it the program would
probably be canceled.41 Like the suicide pill, not all pilots carried the coin,
and Knutson did not know of any that intended to commit suicide; he carried it
as an escape tool.28
To decrease the risk of
developing decompression sickness, pilots breathe 100% oxygen for an hour prior
to take off to remove nitrogen from the blood. A portable oxygen supply is used
during transport to the aircraft.42 Since 2001, more than a dozen pilots have
reportedly suffered the effects of decompression sickness, including permanent
brain damage in nine cases; initial symptoms include disorientation and
becoming unable to read. Factors increasing the risk of illness since 2001
include longer mission durations and more cockpit activity. Conventional
reconnaissance missions would limit pilot duties to maintaining flight path for
camera photography. Operations over Afghanistan included more real time
activities, such as communication with ground troops, increasing their bodies'
oxygen requirements and the risk of nitrogen bubble formation. U-2 pilots now
exercise during oxygen pre-breathing.43 In 2012, modifications were initiated
under the Cockpit Altitude Reduction Effort (CARE), increasing the cabin
pressure from 3.88 psi to 7.65 psi, a 15,000 foot altitude equivalent. The
urine collection device also was rebuilt to eliminate leakage.
Initial missions were flown with
the trimetrogon "A" camera, a modification of existing cameras,
consisting of three 24-inch-focal-length cameras. This was followed by the
"B" camera with 36-inch-focal-length lens and image motion
compensation. It was a panoramic camera which took pictures of an extremely
large area of the earth's surface. Six-thousand-foot reels of film made from
ESTAR Base (PET) were used.45
The aircraft carries a variety
of sensors in the nose, Q-bay (behind the cockpit, also known as the camera
bay), and wing pods. The U-2 is capable of simultaneously collecting signals,
imagery intelligence and air samples. Imagery intelligence sensors include
either wet film photography, electro-optic, or radar imagery�the latter from
the Raytheon ASARS-2 system. It can use both line-of-sight and over-horizon data
links.
A committee of Army, Navy, Air
Force, CIA, NSA, and State Department representatives created lists of priority
targets for U-2 and other intelligence-gathering methods. The U-2 project
received the list and drew up flight plans, and the committee provided a
detailed rationale for each plan for the president to consider as he decided
whether to approve it. The CIA's Photo Intelligence Division grew in size to
prepare for the expected flood of U-2 photographs. Before the aircraft became
operational, however, the air force's Project Genetrix, which used
high-altitude balloons to photograph the Soviet Union, China, and eastern
Europe, led to many diplomatic protests from those countries and for a while
CIA officials feared that the U-2 project was at risk. While Genetrix was also
a technical failure�only 34 of the 516 balloons returned usable photographs�the
balloon flights gave the United States many clues on how the Communist
countries used radar to track overflights, which benefited the U-2 program.
Eisenhower remained concerned
that despite their great intelligence value, overflights of the Soviet Union
might cause a war. While the U-2 was under development, at the 1955 Geneva
Summit he proposed to Nikita Khrushchev that the Soviet Union and the United
States would each grant the other country airfields to use to photograph
military installations. Khrushchev rejected the "Open Skies"
proposal, and the CIA told the president that the Soviets could not track high
altitude U-2 flights. This belief was based on studies using old Soviet radar
systems and American systems that were not as effective at high altitudes as
current Soviet systems, of which the U.S. was not aware; Knutson later said
that "the U-2 was really quite invisible to American radar, but Russian
radar were a little different � better, you might say". Although the
Office of Scientific Intelligence issued a more cautious report in May 1956
that stated that detection was possible, it believed that the Soviets could not
consistently track the aircraft. Dulles further told Eisenhower (according to
presidential aide Andrew Goodpaster) that in any aircraft loss the pilot would
almost certainly not survive. With such assurances and the growing demand for
accurate intelligence regarding the alleged "bomber gap" between the
U. S. and the Soviet Union, in June 1956 Eisenhower approved 10 days of
overflights.5828
The first U-2 overflight had
already occurred, using existing authorization of air force overflights over
Eastern Europe. On 20 June 1956 a U-2 flew over Poland and East Germany, with
more flights on 2 July. The fact that radar had�contrary to the CIA's expectations�successfully
tracked the aircraft worried Eisenhower, but he approved the first Soviet
overflight, Mission 2013 on 4 July. U-2 Article 347's main target was the
Soviet submarine construction program in Leningrad, as well as counting the
numbers of the new Myasishchev M-4 "Bison" bomber. A second flight on
5 July continued searching for Bisons, took photographs of Moscow (the only
ones taken by the program), and examined rocket factories at Kaliningrad and
Khimki. Eisenhower knew from the earlier overflights that his hope of no Soviet
detection was unrealistic, but ordered that the overflights stop if the
aircraft could be tracked. The CIA found that the Soviets could not
consistently track the U-2s, and they therefore did not know that Moscow and Leningrad
had been overflown. The aircraft's photographs showed tiny images of MiG-15s
and MiG-17s attempting and failing to intercept the aircraft, proving that the
Soviets could not shoot down an operational U-2.59 Knutson recalled that the
"constant stream of Russian fighters" trying to shoot down the U-2
during overflights was sometimes "so thick" that they interfered with
photographs. Repeatedly failing for years to stop the aircraft embarrassed the
USSR, which made diplomatic protests against the flights but did not publicize
the penetration of Soviet territory.28
U-2 missions from Wiesbaden
would depart westward in order to gain altitude over friendly territory before
turning eastward at operational altitudes. The NATO Air Defence mission in that
area included No. 1 Air Division RCAF (Europe), which operated the Canadair
Sabre Mark 6 from bases in northeastern France. This aircraft had a service
ceiling of 54,000 feet and numerous encounters between the U-2 and RCAF 'ZULU'
alert flights have been recorded for posterity.
The presidential order did not
restrict U-2 flights outside eastern Europe. In May 1956, Turkey approved the
deployment of Detachment B at Incirlik Air Base, near Adana, Turkey. Before the
new detachment was ready, however, Detachment A in late August used Adana as a
refueling base to photograph the Mediterranean. The aircraft found evidence of
many British troops on Malta and Cyprus as the United Kingdom prepared for its
forthcoming intervention in Suez. The U.S. released some of the photographs to
the British government. As the crisis grew in seriousness, the project
converted from a source of strategic reconnaissance, which prioritized high
quality over speed (the film was processed by its maker, then analyzed in
Washington), to a tactical reconnaissance unit that provided immediate
analysis. The Photo Intelligence Division set up a lab at Wiesbaden; as
Detachment B took over from A and flew over targets that remain classified as
of July 2013, the Wiesbaden lab's rapid reports helped the U.S. government to
predict the Israeli-British-French attack on Egypt three days before it began
on 29 October. On 1 November a flight flew over the Egyptian air base at Almaza
twice, 10 minutes apart; in between the British and French attacked the base,
and the visible results of the attack in the "10-minute
reconnaissance" impressed Eisenhower. Beginning on 5 November, flights
over Syria showed that the Soviets had not sent aircraft there despite their
threats against the British, French and Israelis, a cause of worry for the U.S.
Eisenhower refused CIA pleas in
September 1956 to reauthorize overflights of Eastern Europe but the Hungarian
Revolution in November, and his reelection that month, caused the president to
permit flights over border areas. Soviet interceptors continued to fail to
reach the U-2s but, after the Soviets protested a December overflight of
Vladivostok by RB-57Ds, Eisenhower again forbade communist overflights. Flights
close to the border continued, now including the first ELINT-equipped U-2s. In
May 1957, Eisenhower again authorized overflights over certain important Soviet
missile and atomic facilities. He continued to personally authorize each
flight, closely examining maps and sometimes making changes to the flight
plan.63 By 1957, one of the European units was based at Giebelstadt, and the
far eastern unit was based at the Naval Air Facility Atsugi, Japan.64
Soviet overflights resumed in
June 1957 from Eielson Air Force Base in Alaska to the Russian Far East, which
had less effective radar systems. Others originated from Lahore, Pakistan. A
Lahore flight on 5 August provided the first photographs of the Baikonur
Cosmodrome near Tyuratam: the CIA had been unaware of its existence until then.
Other flights examined the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site and the Saryshagan
missile test site.6667 After a few more overflights that year, only five more
would occur before the May 1960 incident because of Eisenhower's increasing
caution. The president sought to avoid angering the Soviets as he worked to
achieve a nuclear test ban; meanwhile the Soviets began trying to shoot down
U-2 flights that never entered Soviet airspace, and the details in their
diplomatic protests showed that Soviet radar operators were able to effectively
track the aircraft. To reduce visibility Lockheed painted the aircraft in a
blue-black color that helped them blend in against the darkness of space, and
the CIA aircraft received the more powerful Pratt & Whitney J75-P-13 engine
that increased maximum altitude by 2,500 feet (800 m), to 74,600 feet (22,700
m).68
The CIA chose for the
mission�the 24th deep-penetration Soviet overflight�Operation GRAND SLAM, an
ambitious flight plan for the first crossing of the Soviet Union from Peshawar,
Pakistan to Bod�, Norway; previous flights had always exited in the direction
from which they had entered. The route would permit visits to Tyuratam,
Sverdlovsk, Kirov, Kotlas, Severodvinsk, and Murmansk. It was expected, given
good weather, to resolve missile, nuclear and nuclear submarine intelligence
issues with one flight.75 Francis Gary Powers, the most experienced pilot with
27 missions, was chosen for the flight. After delays, the flight began on May
Day, 1 May; this was a mistake because as an important Soviet holiday there was
much less air traffic than usual. The Soviets began tracking the U-2 15 miles
outside the border, and over Sverdlovsk, four and a half hours into the flight,
one of three SA-2 missiles detonated behind the aircraft at 70,500 feet;
another hit a Soviet interceptor attempting to reach the American aircraft.
Powers survived the near miss and was quickly captured; the crash did not
destroy the U-2 and the Soviets were able to identify much of the equipment.76
U-2 pilots were told if
captured, Knutson later said, "to tell them everything that they
knew", because they were told little about their missions other than
targets on maps. Otherwise, Powers had little instruction on what to do during
an interrogation. Although he had been told that he could reveal everything
about the aircraft since the Soviets could learn what they wanted from it,
Powers did his best to conceal classified information while appearing to
cooperate. His trial began on 17 August 1960. Powers�who apologized on advice
of his Soviet defense counsel�was sentenced to three years in prison, but on 10
February 1962 the USSR exchanged him and American student Frederic Pryor for
Rudolf Abel at Glienicke Bridge between West Berlin and Potsdam, Germany. Two
CIA investigations found that Powers had done well during the interrogation and
had "complied with his obligations as an American citizen during this
period". Although the government was reluctant to reinstate him to the
USAF because of its statements that the U-2 program was civilian, it had
promised to do so after CIA employment ended. Powers resolved the dilemma by choosing
to work for Lockheed as a U-2 pilot.78
The search for operational
ballistic missile sites would continue focussing on the Soviet railway system
using Corona satellite imagery with a resolution of twenty to thirty feet
compared to two to three feet from U-2 cameras.
From October 1960, Detachment G
made many overflights of Cuba from Laughlin Air Force Base, Texas. Although
Lockheed modified six CIA aircraft into the aerial refueling-capable U-2F model
in 1961, permitting some Cuba missions to originate from Edwards, pilot fatigue
limited flights to about 10 hours. An August 1962 flight showed Soviet SA-2 SAM
sites on the island; later overflights found more sites and MiG-21
interceptors. The increasing number of SAMs caused the United States to more
cautiously plan Cuban overflights. USAF U-2s did not conduct overflights, but
officials believed that it would be better for a military officer to be the
pilot in case he was shot down. Following one last Cuba overflight that
originated from Edwards and ended at McCoy Air Force Base, Florida on 14
October 1962, all further U-2 operations over Cuba originated from a detachment
operating location that was established at McCoy.86
After receiving hasty training
on the more-powerful U-2F under the cognizance of the Weather Reconnaissance
Squadron Provisional (WRSP-4) at Edwards AFB, Major Richard S. Heyser flew an
overflight of western Cuba on 14 October in a U-2F; his was the first to
photograph Soviet MRBMs in San Cristobal and he terminated his mission at McCoy
AFB, Florida. Prior to launch of all Cuban sorties, the two U-2F aircraft
possessed by WSRP-4 and flown by 4080th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing personnel
had USAF insignia and tail numbers.87 SAC received permission to fly as many
Cuban overflights as necessary for the duration of the resulting Cuban Missile
Crisis. On a 27 October sortie from McCoy AFB, one of the U-2Fs was shot down
over Cuba by an SA-2 Guideline surface-to-air missile, killing the pilot, Major
Rudolf Anderson; he posthumously received the first Air Force Cross. Fulfilling
CIA officials' fears of a USAF takeover, CIA pilots never again flew over Cuba;
SAC retained control over Cuban overflights,8889 which continued until the
1970s under the code name OLYMPIC FIRE.90
On July 28, 1966, a U-2 piloted
by USAF Captain Robert Hickman departed from Barksdale Air Force Base to
conduct a reconnaissance mission; Hickman's orders included the requirement
that he not enter Cuban airspace. As determined later by Air Force
investigators, trouble with the aircraft's oxygen system caused Hickman to lose
consciousness. US Navy pilot John Newlin, flying an F-4B assigned to VF-74, was
scrambled from Naval Air Station Key West, ordered to intercept Hickman before
he violated Cuban airspace, and, if necessary, shoot him down. Newlin could not
reach the U-2 before flying closer than 12 miles from the Cuban coastline and
so had to turn back. Hickman's U-2 flew across Cuba, ran out of fuel and
crashed in Bolivia. Hickman died in the crash.
CIA overflights of Asian targets
began in spring 1958, when Detachment C moved from Japan to Naval Air Station
Cubi Point in the Philippines to overfly Indonesia during an uprising against
Sukarno's
In 1963, the CIA started project
Whale Tale to develop carrier-based U-2Gs to overcome range limitations. During
development of the capability, CIA pilots took off and landed U-2Gs on the
aircraft carrier Ranger and other ships. The U-2G was used only twice
operationally. Both flights from Ranger occurred in May 1964 to observe
France's development of an atomic bomb test range at Moruroa in French
Polynesia.9798
In early 1964, SAC sent a
detachment of U-2s from the 4080th to South Vietnam for high altitude
reconnaissance missions over North Vietnam. On 5 April 1965, U-2s from the
4028th Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron (SRS) took photos of SAM-2 sites near
Hanoi and Haiphong harbor. On 11 February 1966, the 4080th Wing was
redesignated the 100th Strategic Reconnaissance Wing (100 SRW) and moved to
Davis-Monthan AFB, Arizona. The detachment at Bien Hoa AB, South Vietnam, was
redesignated the 349th SRS.99
The only loss of a U-2 during
combat operations occurred on 8 October 1966, when Major Leo Stewart, flying
with the 349th Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron, developed mechanical problems
high over North Vietnam. The U-2 managed to return to South Vietnam where
Stewart ejected safely. The U-2 crashed near its base at Bien Hoa. In July
1970, the 349th SRS at Bien Hoa moved to Thailand and was redesignated the 99th
SRS, remaining there until March 1976.
Although the RAF unit operated
as part of Detachment B, the UK formally received title to the U-2s their
pilots would fly, and Eisenhower wrote to Macmillan that because of the
separate lines of authority, the nations were conducting "two
complementary programs rather than a joint one".138 A secret MI6 bank account
paid the RAF pilots, whose cover was employment with the Met Office. After
flying missions over the Middle East the British pilots were declared
proficient to fly missions over the Soviet Union. The first British U-2 flight
over Russia targeted two missile test ranges, three nuclear complexes and a
large segment of railway in one of the test range areas. Operational ballistic
missile sites were considered most likely close to railways but none were
found.139 A second flight had as its main target the long-range bomber airfield
at Saratov/Engels. The number of Bison long-range aircraft counted on the
airfield settled the "bomber gap" controversy. Other targets were a
missile test center and aircraft, aircraft engine and missile production plants.
A new bomber with two engines at the base of the fin, the Tupolev Tu-22, was
discovered at one of the aircraft plants.140 Like Eisenhower, Macmillan
personally approved the Soviet overflights.82 The British direct involvement in
overflights ended after the May 1960 U-2 downing incident; although four pilots
remained stationed in California until 1974, the CIA's official history of the
program stated that "RAF pilots never again conducted another overflight
in an Agency U-2."141 In 1960 and 1961 the first four pilots received the
Air Force Cross, but their U-2 experience remained secret.
ROC and American authorities
reached an agreement in 1958 to create the 35th Squadron, nicknamed the Black
Cat Squadron, composed of two U-2Cs in Taoyuan Air Base in northern Taiwan, at
an isolated part of the air base. To create misdirection typical of the time,
the unit was created under the cover of high altitude weather research missions
for ROCAF. To the U.S. government, the 35th Squadron and any U.S. CIA/USAF
personnel assigned to the unit were known as Detachment H on all documents. But
instead of being under normal USAF control, the project was known as Project
Razor,142143 and was run directly by the CIA with USAF assistance. Each of the
35th Squadron's operational missions had to be approved by both the U.S. and
the ROC presidents beforehand. A further layer of security and secrecy was
enforced by all U.S. military and CIA/government personnel stationed in Taoyuan
assigned to Detachment H having been issued official documents and IDs with
false names and cover titles as Lockheed employees/representatives in civilian
clothes. The ROCAF personnel would never know their U.S. counterparts' real
names and rank/titles, or which U.S. government agencies they were dealing with.
A total of 26 of 28 ROC pilots sent to the U.S. completed training between 1959
and 1973, at Laughlin Air Force Base, Texas.144 On 3 August 1959, a U-2 on a
training mission out of Laughlin AFB, piloted by ROCAF Major Mike Hua, made a
successful unassisted nighttime emergency landing at Cortez, Colorado, that
became known as the Miracle at Cortez. Major Hua was awarded the USAF
Distinguished Flying Cross for saving the aircraft.145146147148
In 1968, the ROC U-2C/F/G fleet
was replaced with the newer U-2R. However, with the overwhelming threats from
SA-2 missiles and MiG-21 interceptors, along with the rapprochement between the
US and the PRC, the ROC U-2s stopped entering Chinese airspace, only conducting
electronic intelligence-gathering and photo-reconnaissance missions using new
Long Range Oblique Reconnaissance (LOROP) cameras on the U-2R from above
international waters. The last U-2 mission over mainland China took place on 16
March 1968. After that, all missions had the U-2 fly outside a buffer zone at
least 20 nautical miles (37 km) around China.
During his visit to China in
1972, U.S. President Richard Nixon promised the Chinese to cease all
reconnaissance missions near and over China, though this was also practical as
by 1972, U.S. photo satellites could provide better overhead images without
risking losing aircraft and pilots, or provoking international incidents. The
last 35th Squadron mission was flown by Sungchou "Mike" Chiu on 24
May 1974.150
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Additional Information from
Internet Encyclopedia
The Douglas A-26 Invader
(designated B-26 between 1948�1965) was a United States twin-engine light
bomber and attack aircraft built by Douglas Aircraft during World War II that
also saw service during several of the Cold War's major conflicts. A limited
number of highly modified aircraft (designation A-26 restored) served in combat
until 1969.
It was found to be a fast
aircraft capable of carrying twice its specified bomb load. A range of guns
could be fitted to produce a formidable ground-attack aircraft.
The redesignation of the type
from A-26 to B-26 has led to popular confusion with the Martin B-26 Marauder, a
design that first flew in November 1940, some 16 months before the Douglas
design's maiden flight. Although both types utilized the much-used Pratt &
Whitney Double Wasp eighteen-cylinder, double-row engine, they are completely
different designs. The last A-26 in active US service was assigned to the Air National
Guard.
The A-26 was originally built in
two different configurations. The A-26B had a "solid" nose, which
originally could be equipped with a combination of anything from .50 caliber
machine guns, 37mm auto cannon, 20mm or even a 75mm pack howitzer, but normally
the solid nose version housed six (or later eight) .50 caliber machine guns,
officially termed the "all-purpose nose", later commonly known as the
"six-gun nose" or "eight-gun nose". The A-26C's
"glass" nose, officially termed the "Bombardier nose",
contained a Norden bombsight for medium altitude precision bombing. The A-26C
nose section included two fixed M-2 guns, later replaced by underwing gun packs
or internal guns in the wings.
The Douglas company began
delivering the production model A-26B in August 1943 with the new bomber first
seeing action with the Fifth Air Force in the Southwest Pacific theater on 23
June 1944, when they bombed Japanese-held islands near Manokwari. The pilots in
the 3rd Bomb Group's 13th Squadron, "The Grim Reapers", who received
the first four A-26s for evaluation, found the view from the cockpit to be poor
for low level attack. Douglas needed
better results from the Invader's second combat test, so A-26s began arriving
in Europe in late September 1944 for assignment to the Ninth Air Force. The
initial deployment involved 18 aircraft and crews assigned to the 553d Squadron
of the 386th Bomb Group. The first group
to fully convert to the A-26B was 416th Bombardment Group with which it entered
combat on 17 November, and the 409th Bombardment Group, whose A-26s became
operational in late November. In Italy
the Twelfth Air Force's 47th Bomb Group also received the A-26, starting in
January 1945.
The USAF Strategic Air Command
had the renamed B-26 (RB-26) in service from 1949 through 1950, the Tactical
Air Command through the late 1960s, and the last examples in service with the
Air National Guard through 1972.
The U.S. Navy also used a small
number of these aircraft in their utility squadrons for target towing and
general utility designated JD-1 and JD-1D until 1962, when the JD-1 was
redesignated UB-26J and the JD-1D was redesignated DB-26J.
B-26 Invaders of the 3d
Bombardment Group, operating from bases in Southern Japan, were some of the
first USAF aircraft engaged in the Korean War.
On 10 August 1950, the Air Force Reserve's 452d Bombardment Wing was
activated for Korean Service. In addition
to the standard attack versions of the B-26 which flew night interdiction
missions, a small number of modified WB-26s and RB-26s of the 67th Tactical
Reconnaissance Wing flew critical weather observation and reconnaissance
missions in supporting roles.
In the 1950s, the French Air
Force's (Arm�e de l'air) Bombing Groups (Groupe de bombardement) including GB
1/19 Gascogne and GB 1/25 Tunisia, used B-26 during the First Indochina War
lent to France by the United States Air Force.
In 1958, the CIA started Operation
Haik in Indonesia, concerned about the Sukarno regime's communist
leanings. At least a dozen B-26
Invaders were committed in support of rebel forces.
The first B-26s to arrive in
Southeast Asia were deployed to Takhli RTAFB, Thailand in December 1960. These
unmarked aircraft, operated under the auspices of the U.S. CIA (Central
Intelligence Agency), were soon augmented by an additional 16 aircraft, 12
B-26Bs and B-26Cs plus four RB-26Cs under Operation Mill Pond. The mission of
all of these aircraft was to assist the Royal Lao Government in fighting the
Pathet Lao. The repercussions from the Bay of Pigs invasion meant that no
combat missions are known to have been flown, although RB-26Cs operated over
Laos until the end of 1961. The aircraft were subsequently operated in South
Vietnam under Project "Farm Gate". The only other deployment of B-26
aircraft to Laos prior to the introduction of the B-26K/A-26A, was the
deployment of two RB-26C aircraft, specifically modified for night reconnaissance,
deployed to Laos between May and July 1962 under Project Black Watch.
The On Mark Engineering Company
of Van Nuys, California was selected by the Air Force to extensively upgrade
the Invader for a counterinsurgency role. The first production flight of the B-26K
was on 30 May 1964 at the Van Nuys Airport. On Mark converted 40 Invaders to
the new B-26K Counter-Invader standard, which included upgraded engines,
propellers, and brakes, re-manufactured wings, and wing tip fuel tanks, for use
by the 609th Special Operations Squadron. In May 1966, the B-26K was
re-designated A-26A for political reasons (Thailand did not allow the U.S. to
have bombers stationed in country at the time, so the Invaders were
redesignated with an "A", for attack aircraft) and deployed in
Thailand to help disrupt supplies moving along the Ho Chi Minh trail. Two of
these aircraft were further modified with a Forward Looking Infrared (FLIR
system) under project Lonesome Tiger, as a part of Operation Shed Light.
In early 1961, about 20 B-26Bs,
most converted from B-26C configuration, were 'sanitized' at Duke Field (aka
Auxiliary Field Three at Eglin AFB), Florida. They had defensive armament
removed, and were fitted with the eight-gun nose, underwing drop tanks, and
rocket racks. They were flown to a CIA-run base in Guatemala where training was
underway of B-26, C-46 and C-54 Cuban exile air crews by personnel from the
Alabama ANG (Air National Guard). After transfer to Nicaragua in early April
1961, they were painted in the markings of the FAR (Fuerza A�rea
Revolucionaria), the air force of the Cuban government. On 15 April 1961,
crewed by Cuban exiles, eight B-26s of the FAL (Fuerza A�rea de Liberaci�n)
attacked three Cuban airfields, in an attempt to destroy FAR combat aircraft on
the ground. On 17 April 1961, FAL B-26s supported the seaborne Bay of Pigs
Invasion of Cuba. The conflict ended on 19 April, after the loss of nine FAL
B-26s.
--------------------------------------------------------------------
Additional Information from
Internet Encyclopedia
The Brewster F2A Buffalo is an
American fighter aircraft which saw service early in World War II. Designed and
built by the Brewster Aeronautical Corporation, it was one of the first U.S.
monoplanes with an arrestor hook and other modifications for aircraft carriers.
The Buffalo won a competition against the Grumman F4F Wildcat in 1939 to become
the U.S. Navy's first monoplane fighter aircraft. Although superior to the
Grumman F3F biplane it replaced, and the early F4Fs,[2] the Buffalo was largely
obsolete when the United States entered the war, being unstable and overweight,
especially when compared to the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero.[3]
Several nations, including
Finland, Belgium, Britain and the Netherlands, ordered the Buffalo. The Finns
were the most successful with their Buffalos, flying them in combat against
early Soviet fighters with excellent results.[4] During the Continuation War of
1941�1944, the B-239s (de-navalized F2A-1) operated by the Finnish Air Force
proved capable of engaging and destroying most types of Soviet fighter aircraft
operating against Finland at that time and achieving in the first phase of that
conflict 32 Soviet aircraft shot down for every B-239 lost,[5] and producing 36
Buffalo "aces".[6]
In December 1941, Buffalos
operated by both British Commonwealth (B-339E) and Dutch (B-339D) air forces in
South East Asia suffered severe losses in combat against the Japanese Navy's
Mitsubishi A6M Zero and the Japanese Army's Nakajima Ki-43 "Oscar".
The British attempted to lighten their Buffalos by removing ammunition and fuel
and installing lighter guns to improve performance, but it made little
difference.[7] After the first few engagements, the Dutch halved the fuel and
ammunition load in the wing, which allowed their Buffalos (and their
Hurricanes) to stay with the Oscars in turns.[8]
The Buffalo was built in three
variants for the U.S. Navy: the F2A-1, F2A-2 and F2A-3. (In foreign service,
with lower horsepower engines, these types were designated B-239, B-339, and
B-339-23 respectively.) The F2A-3 variant saw action with United States Marine
Corps (USMC) squadrons at the Battle of Midway. Shown by the experience of
Midway to be no match for the Zero,[2] the F2A-3 was derided by USMC pilots as
a "flying coffin."[9] Indeed, the F2A-3s performance was
substantially inferior to the F2A-2 variant used by the Navy before the
outbreak of the war despite detail improvements.
In 1935, the U.S. Navy issued a
requirement for a carrier-based fighter intended to replace the Grumman F3F
biplane. The Brewster XF2A-1 monoplane, designed by a team led by Dayton T.
Brown, was one of two aircraft designs that were initially considered.[11] The
XF4F-1 with a double-row radial engine was a "classic" biplane. The
U.S. Navy competition was re-opened to allow another competitor, the XFNF-1, a
navalized Seversky P-35 eliminated early on when the prototype could not reach
more than 267 mph (430 km/h).[12] The XF2A-1 first flew on 2 December 1937 and
early test results showed it was far in advance of the Grumman biplane entry.
While the XF4F-1 would not enter production, it would later re-emerge as a
monoplane, the Wildcat.
The Buffalo was manufactured at
the Brewster Building in Long Island City, New York.
The new Brewster fighter had a
modern look with a stubby fuselage, mid-set monoplane wings and a host of
advanced features. It was all-metal, with flush-riveted, stressed aluminum
construction, although control surfaces were still fabric-covered. The XF2A-1
also featured split flaps, a hydraulically operated retractable main
undercarriage (and partially retractable tailwheel), and a streamlined framed
canopy. However (as was still common at this time), the aircraft lacked
self-sealing fuel tanks and pilot armor. Fuel was only 160 U.S. gal (606 l),
stored in the fuselage. Powered by a 950 hp (708 kW) single-row Wright
R-1820-22 Cyclone radial engine, it had an impressive initial climb rate of
2,750 ft/min and a top speed of 277.5 mph (447 km/h). The aircraft was then
tested in 1938 in the Langley Research Center full-scale wind tunnel, where it
was determined that certain factors were contributing to parasitic drag. Based
on the tests, improvements were made to the cowling streamlining and
carburetor/oil cooler intakes, and the Buffalo's speed rose to 304 mph (489
km/h) at 16,000 ft (4,879 m) without any increase in power. Other manufacturers
took notice of this 10% increase in speed and efficiency, and wind tunnel tests
grew to be standard procedure in the US.[16] With only a single-stage supercharger,
high-altitude performance fell off rapidly.[10] Fuselage armament was one fixed
.50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine gun with 200 rounds and one fixed .30 in
(7.62 mm) AN Browning machine gun with 600 rounds, both in the nose.[N 1] The
Navy awarded Brewster Aeronautical Corporation a production contract for 54
aircraft as the F2A-1.
The F2A-3 was the last version
of the Buffalo to enter service with the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps. A total of
108 examples were ordered in January 1941. By this time, the Navy had become
disenchanted with the Buffalo, and had become especially annoyed at Brewster
Aeronautical Corporation's frequent production delays and its seemingly
never-ending management difficulties. This order was seen more as a way of
keeping Brewster's production lines running; they would eventually build
Corsair fighters for the Navy as well as Buccaneer/Bermuda dive bombers.
The F2A-3s were conceived as a
long range reconnaissance fighter with a new wet wing with self-sealing
features and a larger fuselage tank which provided increased fuel capacity and
protection, but this also increased the aircraft's weight by more than 500 lb
(227 kg).[10] The wing and enlarged fuselage tank carried an additional 80 U.S.
gal (300 L) of fuel; at 6 lb/U.S. gal (0.72 kg/L), the fuel alone weighed
nearly 500 lb (227 kg). The addition of armor plating for the pilot and
increased ammunition capacity further increased the aircraft's weight,
resulting in a reduced top speed and rate of climb, while substantially
degrading the Brewster's turning and maneuvering capability.[10] The Navy found
that the added weight of the F2A-3 also aggravated the problem of landing gear
failure during carrier landings. However, the -40 two speed [19] supercharged
Cyclone engine in the F2A-3 was an excellent "cruising" engine and as
such the F2A-3 had some value and saw initial service on the carriers Saratoga
and Lexington.
Even in late 1940 it was
apparent that the Buffalo was rapidly becoming obsolete.[N 2] It badly needed a
more powerful engine, but the limits of the airframe had been reached, making
installation of a larger engine impossible. Soon after deliveries of the F2A-3
began, the Navy decided to eliminate the type altogether. By then, considered a
second line aircraft, some were transferred to the U.S. Marine Corps, which
deployed two F2A-3 squadrons to the Pacific, one at Palmyra Atoll, and another
at Midway Island. Those which still remained on board aircraft carriers
narrowly missed a combat opportunity when a relief mission was dispatched to
Wake Island, but the relief force was withdrawn before completing the mission.
Shortly thereafter, F2A-3s still in naval service were transferred to training
squadrons for use as advanced trainers.